Unit 5: Cohesion & Coherence

Paragraphs are composed of a series of sentences; cohesion and coherence are therefore two major indicators used to evaluate whether these sentences are logically connected and well-organized. Cohesion refers to how smoothly one sentence connects to the next, while coherence focuses on whether all the sentences stick to a central theme. In short, effective cohesion helps readers move seamlessly through a paragraph, and strong coherence enables readers to quickly grasp the main idea.

You can think of a paragraph like a completed jigsaw puzzle: each sentence is a puzzle piece. How the pieces fit together reflects cohesion; how they come together to form a complete picture represents coherence.

As you can see, both cohesion and coherence are indispensable. If sentences connect smoothly but do not stick to the main idea, or if they stay on topic but feel disconnected, the paragraph will still leave readers confused. Examples 1 and 2 below will show what this looks like (blue text and underlines have been added for explanation and will not be repeated later).

In Example 1, the underlined parts show that each subject position in the new sentence picks up information from the preceding one, indicating that the sentences are smoothly connected. However, the bolded parts reveal a problem: the subjects keep changing, which breaks the consistency of the central theme.

While Example 2 revolves around Finland’s lakes and the government’s efforts to address pollution, the links between sentences are not tightly connected. For instance, the second sentence uses “them” to refer to “lakes” mentioned earlier, but the two are quite far apart, making the referent unclear. Starting the second sentence directly with “They” would have made the transition flow more smoothly. In summary, both examples illustrate that a well-organized paragraph must achieve both smooth sentence cohesion and consistent topic development.

Now that we have learned the essential roles of cohesion and coherence in a paragraph, we will now explore strategies for strengthening them. One helpful strategy is to start each sentence with information the reader already knows, allowing readers transition more easily from familiar ideas to new ones. This technique, known as “old-to-new information flow”, can significantly enhance sentence cohesion. As illustrated in Example 3, the cohesion between sentences becomes much tighter when we revise the sequence of subjects.

Example 3 There are 1888,000 lakes in Finland. They are now of great concern to many people. Most of the larger ones have been polluted by chemicals. This was recently confirmed by a Finnish government report.

It is evident that the bolded text in Example 3 reintroduces the familiar information by placing it at the beginning of the following sentence in the subject position, keeping topic consistency. Meanwhile, the underlined text presents relatively new information and is placed at the end of each sentence, allowing the paragraph to remain coherent and easy for readers to follow.

In addition to this “old-to-new information flow” strategy, writers can use connective markers, or transition signals, to clarify how sentences relate to each other. The effectiveness of these markers depends on how accurately they represent the logical relationship between sentences. As Xing Fuyi (2001) notes, these relationships in Chinese writing generally fall into three categories: cause and effect, parallelism, and contrast (pp. 38–47). Typical markers for each type include:

(1) Parallel: furthermore, in addition, next, then, also, on one hand… on the other hand…
(2) Cause and Effect: due to, because, based on this, thus, since… then…
(3) Contrast: but, however, still, not only… but instead…, even if… still…

(Tsai, 2014, 129–131)

When two sentences express a cause-and-effect relationship, writers should use a connective marker that conveys cause and effect. It would be inappropriate to use a marker that suggests contrast or parallelism. See Example 4:

Example 4 「西亞高加索造山帶」與「西藏高原—喜馬拉雅山造山帶」相比，前者聚合時間較晚、較慢且規模較小，儘管如此，高加索造山帶是地球 上年輕且活躍的「陸—陸」碰撞帶。 Compared to the “Tibetan Plateau–Himalayan Orogenic Belt”, the “Western Caucasus Orogenic Belt” the formed later, more slowly, and on a smaller scale. Despite this, the Caucasus orogenic belt remains one of the youngest and most active continent–continent collision zones on Earth. (Adapted from a student assignment for the Chinese Academic Writing Course in the 110-2 semester; English translation)

In this example, the writer wanted to explain that the “Western Caucasus Orogenic Belt,” is considered one of the youngest orogenic belts on Earth due to its later formation— a cause-and-effect relationship. However, by using a contrasitve marker (儘管如此 “despite this”) that signal contrast rather than a causal one (因此 “therefore”), the sentence connection becomes awkward and misleading. This example illustrates why it is important to match connective markers with the actual logic between ideas.

When using connective markers, writers should not only consider the logical relationship between sentences but also pay close attention to the overall flow and organization of ideas. If the ideas are clearly and logically structured, additional connective markers may be unnecessary. Let’s take a closer look at Example 5 to see how this works.

Example 5 Generally speaking, the benefits of regular exercise can be explained in two aspects. First of all, from the physical viewpoint, regular exercise can prevent people from being ill. … Otherwise, from the mental side, regular exercise can effectively relieve one’s stress. … (Adapted from an in-class exercise in Fundamentals of English Writing Course in the 106-1 semester.)

In this paragraph, the writer clearly states in the topic sentence that the benefits of regular exercise will be discussed from two aspects: the physical and the mental, as shown in the underlined parts of the supporting sentences. Given the short length and clear logical structure of the paragraph, transitional phrases “First of all” and “Otherwise” appear redundant, and even disruptive. In particular, “Otherwise” suggests contrast, making it inappropriate since the two aspects are intended to express a parallel relationship.

From Examples 4 and 5, we learn two practical guidelines for using transitions or connective markers:
(1) Always choose transitions that reflect the existing logical relationship between ideas; they do not change it.

(2) Use transitions purposefully, not excessively. When the structure is already clear, fewer transitions are more effective.

To strengthen coherence, writers should adhere to the principle of “one paragraph, one main idea”, ensuring that every sentence consistently develops the paragraph’s central idea. Example 6 shows how this works.

Example 6 “Moral climate” is created when an objectivized moral standard for treating people is accepted by others. This climate results from norms of behavior that are accepted by society whereby if people conform they are socially approved of, or if they don’t they are shunned. In this light, morality acts as a reason to refrain from saying or doing things that the community does not support. A moral  climate encourages individuals to conform to a moral standard and apply that standard to their own circumstances (Bizup and Williams, 2014: 87).

It is clear that all sentences in this paragraph use “moral standard” or “moral climate” as their subject, thus coherently presenting the topic and explaining both the causes and effects of the formation of moral climate. Notably, the writer deliberately varies the way subjects are constructed: besides directly using using the keyword “Moral climate” as the subject in the first sentence, the writer uses strategies such as reference words (or referents), parts of speech, derivatives, and repeating keywords in the following sentences to ensure the paragraph stays unified while avoiding repetitive or monotonus subject usages. As you can see, maintaining paragraph unity is not just rigidly repeating the same words, but more importantly, Using a variety of writing techniques and shifting modes of expression as appropriate to keep the paragraph coherent and engaging.

This paragraph provides a clear example of maintaining paragraph unity. Each sentence centers around the topic of “moral standard” or “moral climate”, helping the paragraph stay focused and effectively explain how moral climate forms and why it matters. What’s particularly effective is how the writer varies the subject phrasing while retaining the same idea: after using the key term “moral climate” in the first sentence, the writer adopts a range of cohesive strategies—including reference words, lexical derivatives, and paraphrased key terms to avoid monotony while still staying on topic. This shows that paragraph unity is not achieved through rigid repetition, but through a variety of writing techniques and shifts in expression to maintain coherence and keep the paragraph engaging.

The principle of “one paragraph, one main idea” also applies to Chinese academic writing. When a paragraph becomes too long, it often loses coherence. Dividing it appropriately can enhance clarity and coherence. Example 7 illustrates this problem:

Example 7 近年來，女性勞動參與率逐漸上升。根據勞動部(2022)的統計資料顯示，臺灣整體勞動參與率為 59.17%，女性勞動參與率則達到51.53%，可見雙薪及多薪家庭也越來越多。呂寶靜(2000)的研究指出， 臺灣家庭組成逐漸以「核心家庭」為主，在這些核心家庭之中，又以雙 薪家庭最為常見。若此情況持續發展，可能導致未來家庭中照顧人力減 少，照顧者的負擔與壓力將上升(引自鄒欣縈、郭慈安，2017;蔡佳容、 蔡榮順、李佩怡，2016)。在「疾病型態的慢性化」、「健康問題障礙 化」、「照護內容複雜化」、「照護時間長期化」趨勢下(許佩蓉、張 俊喜、林靜宜、林壽惠、李世代，2006)，不同的家庭會因資源與價值 觀不同，選擇不同的照顧方式，如居家式服務、社區式服務、機構式服 務等(鄒欣縈、郭慈安，2017;吳怡慧、林明憲，2017)。在臺灣家庭 多受傳統觀念影響的狀況下，人們往往認為照顧患病親屬應為家庭責任， 故居家式服務最為常見(鄒欣縈、郭慈安，2017)。依衛服部委託計畫 資料統計(2011)，失智症患者中，僅 6.2%入住機構，可見絕大部分 的失智者由家人自行照顧，顯見臺灣家庭照顧者數量龐大的現況。 (Adapted from a student assignment for the Academic  Chinese Writing Course in the 110-2 semester.)

This paragraph includes more than one main idea, which disrupts its coherence. Before the underlined text, the writer discusses the expected decline in family caregiving due to greater female labor force and dual-income households. Then, the underlined text shifts to influence of traditional cultural norms on Taiwanese families tendency toward home-based care, leading to a high number of family caregivers. Given these two distinct ideas, the paragraph should be split into two. Example 8 provides a clearer and more effective version, showing how paragraph division improves coherence.

Example 8 近年來，女性勞動參與率逐漸上升。根據勞動部(2022)的統計資料顯示，臺灣整體勞動參與率為 59.17%，女性勞動參與率則達到51.53%，可見雙薪及多薪家庭也越來越多。呂寶靜(2000)的研究指出， 臺灣家庭組成逐漸以「核心家庭」為主，在這些核心家庭之中，又以雙 薪家庭最為常見。若此情況持續發展，可能導致未來家庭中照顧人力減 少，照顧者的負擔與壓力將上升(引自鄒欣縈、郭慈安，2017;蔡佳容、 蔡榮順、李佩怡，2016)。 在家庭中照顧負擔與壓力提升的情況下，伴隨「疾病型態的慢性化」、 「健康問題障礙化」、「照護內容複雜化」、「照護時間長期化」的趨 勢(許佩蓉、張俊喜、林靜宜、林壽惠、李世代，2006)，每個家庭 將因資源與價值觀不同，選擇不同的照顧方式，如居家式服務、社區 式服務、機構式服務等(鄒欣縈、郭慈安，2017;吳怡慧、林明憲， 2017)。在臺灣家庭多受傳統觀念影響的狀況下，人們往往認為照顧 患病親屬應為家庭責任，故居家式服務最為常見(鄒欣縈、郭慈安， 2017)。依衛服部委託計畫資料統計(2011)，失智症患者中，僅 6.2% 入住機構，可見絕大部分的失智者由家人自行照顧，顯見臺灣家庭照顧 者數量龐大的現況。

Example 8 demonstrates how separating the underlined text into a new paragraph and starting it by referencing the main topic of the previous one can strengthen coherence and create a more natural transition between ideas. As illustrated, the underlined text from Example 7 is moved to a new paragraph, which echoes the previous main point (“照顧者的負擔與壓力將上升”) by adding the transitional phrase “在家庭中照顧負擔與壓力提升的情況下，伴隨”. This revision not only adheres to the principle of coherence but also reinforces unity and enhances smoother logical progression across paragraphs.

To sum up, achieving cohesion and coherence is essential for enhancing the logical organization of a paragraph. The methods discussed in this chapter, including the old-to-new information flow, appropriate use of connective markers, and the “one paragraph, one main idea” principle, are eall aimed at strengthening cohesion and coherence between sentences. Once cohesion and coherence are achieved at the micro-level within individual paragraphs, these principles can be extended to ensure strong cohesion between paragraphs, allowing the essay as a whole to consistently develop a unified central theme. In addition to the strategies presented in this chapter, the following Chinese and English resources can provide valuable support in writing clearly and cohesively.

 

I.Chinese Writing Websites and Reference Books

1.中文連詞大全 (Chinese Conjunction Database) http://xh.5156edu.com/page/z7501m8716j18595.html
This online Chinese dictionary includes a built-in search tool for offering multiple features related to Chinese language queries. The Conjunction Database lets you search for conjunctions used from ancient to modern times and learn about how they have developed and are used in context.

2.現代漢語關聯詞語與教學應用 (Study and Pedagogical Application on Conjunctive Devices in Mandarin Chinese ) https://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/upload/download_files/ab27cd7fde47bc6185e71e9d6e1654d6.pdf
This resource from National Taiwan University’s International Chinese Language Program introduces the use of conjunctive devices in Mandarin Chinese with special focus on the usage of “而”.

3.臺灣大學寫作教學中心 AWEC, NTU

• • Writing Resources
    都是句子惹的禍?學術寫作的構句原則與技巧 (Why Sentences Go Wrong: A Guide to Sentence Structure in Academic Writing) https://reurl.cc/VEpDxb
    Developed by AWEC, this article introduces four essential strategies for constructing effective sentences in academic writing. Clear examples accompany each point to help readers clarify their writing principles and enhance the readability of their theses or dissertations.

4.  《麥肯錫寫作技術與邏輯思考》“McKinsey Writing Techniques and Logical Thinking”

• • Chapter 2: Writing coherent and impactful prose – subject, connectors, specificity
  • 第二章 寫出流暢有力的文案—主詞、接續語、具體性，三大重點
    This chapter stresses the importance of logical structure. It explains the use of logical transitions through simple examples and ends with exercises, answer keys, and explanations to help readers improve cohesion and coherence.

5.《從字句到結構:學術論文寫作指引》“From Words to Structure: A Structural Guide to Academic Writing”

• • Chapter 5: Words, Sentences, Paragraphs and Essays
    This article covers key sentence structure principles, logical flow, and punctuation use. With a range of illustrative examples, it effectively supports the development of cohesion and coherence in writing.

6.《一本小小的紅色寫作書》“The Little Red Writing Book”

• • Part 1: Structure
    ▲   Principle 1: Write with a Top-Down Approach
    ▲   Principle 2: Break Things Down
    ▲   Principle 3: Use Transition Words
    This book offers 20 clear writing principles in a short, impactful format, with examples and exercises that help readers grasp the key ideas. The three principles featured here stress:
    – Write with a Top-Down Approach
    – Break Things Down
    – Use Transition Words
    These principles provide readers with practical strategies for improving transitions and coherence in their writing.

II. English Writing Websites and Reference Books

1. The Writing Center at University of Wisconsin—Madison

• Transitional Words and Phrases
  ▲ Connecting Ideas Through Transitions https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/style/connectingideas/
  ▲ Using Transitional Words and Phrases https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/style/transitions/
  Provided by the University of Wisconsin–Madison Writing Center, this handbook includes two useful resources. The first discusses why cohesion and coherence matter and outlines methods for linking ideas, including cause and effect, time sequence, contrast, and spatial relationships, with example phrases for smoother writing. The second provides a large collection of transitional words for improving flow and clarity.

2. The Writing Center at George Mason University

• Cohesion and Coherence https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/cohesion-and-coherence
  Developed by the George Mason University Writing Center, this site offers guidance on various writing techniques. The selected article suggests strategies for connecting ideas, building supporting details, and reinforcing arguments. It includes useful examples and tips to help readers better understand how to achieve cohesion and coherence.

3. Writing Commons

• Flow https://writingcommons.org/section/style/elements-of-style/
  This website, developed by Professor Joe Moxley, is tailored to the writing needs of college-level students. The article uses “flow” to refer to logical structure and coherence, explains why it matters, introduces various types of flow, and shows how to apply the concept to improve student writing.

4. The OWL at Purdue University

• Revising for Cohesion https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/the_writing_process/proofreading/revising_for_cohesion.html
  OWL (Online Writing Lab), founded by Purdue University, is an online platform that hosts a vast collection of writing resources and practice materials. The selected material outlines basic coherence principles and includes tips on how to practice, write, and revise for better flow in writing.

5. The Writing Center at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

• Flow https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/flow/
  This online writing resource, created by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center, offers writing guidance, online consultation, and useful resources. The selected article introduces common organizational patterns and techniques for using transitions and connectors to help improve cohesion in English writing.

6. Wordvice

• Common Transitions and Linking Devices in Acadmeic Writing https://reurl.cc/NXzv6k
  In addition to English editing and thesis translation services, this website also includes resources to support academic writing. The selected page features videos and examples of common expressions to help readers better understand how to use transition and linking words in academic writing.

7. Taiwan Testing Center

• Conjunctions http://www.taiwantestcentral.com/Grammar/Title.aspx?ID=8
  The Taiwan Testing Center, part of Nexus International, provides English learning tools and interactive tests to help learners improve their English. This site introduces different types of conjunctions, with hyperlinks offering rich examples and exercises—an excellent resource for building fluency with transitions.

8. AWEC, NTU

• E-Paper Issue NO. 012
  ▲ Speech Summary
  Cohesion and Coherence in Academic Writing – The Use of Connectives in PhD Abstracts」 https://epaper.ntu.edu.tw/view.php?listid=245&id=23509
  Taken from the featured speech highlight in Issue 12 of the NTU AWEC e-newsletter, the speaker explained the difference between cohesion and coherence, outlined five key writing strategies for coherence, and offered practical tips for improving writing flow.

9. AWEC, NTU

• Writing Resources
  ▲Unity and Coherence https://reurl.cc/W3aDKO
  AWEC has developed a writing resource site that addresses common writing issues through instructional videos and helpful links to other websites. The unit “Unity and Coherence” features a 20-minute video with detailed explanations and a sample article about gold to demonstrate how these principles can be applied in writing.

10. The Elements of Style

• Elementary Principles of Composition
  The book covers grammar, writing rules, formatting tips, and common errors, along with exercises to help learners improve their writing. Chapter 2 is particularly usefule for understanding how to make writing more connected and coherent.