Unit 6: Collocations

While logical reasoning, coherent structure, and smooth transitions are essential for clear writing, the ability to choose precise and natural-sounding expressions is equally indispensable. Language does not operate through a series of stand-alone words; instead, meaning is often shaped by specific word combinations that frequently occur together in context. These combinations—known as collocations—consist of two or more words that convey particular meanings or nuances. In short, certain words naturally “go with” others, and using these collocations correctly makes your writing more fluent, authentic, and native-like.

In English, a typical example of collocation can be seen in the different pairings of the verbs do and make. For instance, while Chinese uses the same verb 「做」in phrases like「做功課」and「做決定」, English distinguishes between them: we say do homework but make a decision. Similarly, the verb in 「洗碗」corresponds to do the dishes, whereas 「整理床鋪」translates to make the bed.

Collocations also extend to adjective-noun pairings. For example, although 「大雨」may be literally translated as “big rain”, English speakers naturally say heavy rain. Likewise, instead of saying “thick tea” for 「濃茶」, where濃often refers to density or thickness, the more natural expression in English is strong. While phrases such as “big rain” or “thick tea” are not grammatically incorrect, they sound awkward and unnatural to native speakers. These examples show how certain word combinations, or collocations, occur more frequently than others due to linguistic convention (Lewis, 2002a, p. 8).

These patterns aren’t unique to English; similar conventions exist in Chinese as well. For instance, native speakers naturally say 「喝咖啡」 (drink coffee), not「飲咖啡」, and 「講電話」 (talk on the phone), not「談電話」. The same applies to measure words, such as 「一匹馬」 (a horse) instead of「一頭馬」. When Chinese language learners ask why one form is preferred over another, even native speakers can’t explain the rule. These pairings sound right not because of strict grammar rules, but because they’re rooted in everyday usage. The same issue arises when Taiwanese learners of English unconsciously transfer Chinese usage patterns into English, resulting in awkward or unnatural expressions, commonly known as “Taiwanese-style English” in both speaking and writing, influenced by habitual use of their mother tongue (Liao, 2008). Consider the following example, which contains two collocation mistakes:

Currently, the United States is in a rather feeble position to perpetuate its system merely because investing time and resources to learn knowledge on Japan is not yet seen as a priority.

 

Some unnatural English expressions come from direct translations of Chinese. The phrase “in a feeble position” sounds unnatural in English, even though it attempts to convey the idea of weakness in the Chinese phrase「處於弱勢」 . A more appropriate collocation would be “in a weak” or “vulnerable position”. Another common error is “learn / study knowledge”, which doesn’t follow natural English usage. Natural English collocations pair knowledge with verbs like gain or acquire (“gain knowledge” or “acquire knowledge.”).

In addition to the previously discussed patterns such as “adjective + noun” and “verb + noun”, collocations in English also take several other common forms:

1. Verb + Preposition
   Your hair and eyes remind me of my mother.

2. Noun + Preposition
   UN leaders are working hard to find a peaceful solution to the conflict.

3. Noun + Verb
   Problems arise if the parental approach to discipline is inconsistent.

4. Noun + Noun
   a sense of humor; a surge of anger

5. Verb + Adverb
   Her death affected him deeply. / I deeply regret the loss of your loved one.

6. Adv + Adjective
   She is completely satisfied with her haircut.

Some collocations are relatively fixed, such combinations of nouns with prepositions (e.g., interest in), verbs with prepositions (e.g., depend on), or common verbs like make/do/have/get and their typical noun partners (e.g., make a mistake, do your homework). Other collocations allow more varieties, such as adjectives paired with the noun problem. Becoming familiar with these collocations can make your English sound more natural, clear, and effective.

The question is: how can we best develop collocational skills? Developing collocational awareness requires more than exposure to language input; it demands active engagement and strategic learning. A key strategy is to learn vocabulary in lexical clusters rather than in isolation. For example, when learning the verb support, also take note of common adverbs like strongly or fully. For the noun decision, observe its adjective pairings: a big/difficult/rational decision, verbs it collocates with: make/reach/come to a decision, and typical prepositional patterns: a decision on/about her future.

Achieving mastery in collocation usage is a gradual process rather than an immediate result. With the consistent use of reliable resources, such as collocation dictionaries, corpus-based tools, and online platforms, paired with deliberate practice, you can steadily improve your language precision. Over time, you will develop a more natural and confident voice in both speaking and writing.

In Chinese writing, collocations just as important, contributing to semantic richness and authentically conveying the writer’s intended tone or stance. While rhetorical or literary techniques may be used to enhance aesthetic appeal, inappropriate or mismatched word choices in non-literary contexts can sound awkward or even mislead the reader. In many cases, the literal meaning of a phrase offers clues about whether it makes sense in context. Let’s look at the follow example:

台南藝術博覽會即將在星期六（23日）到25日盛大開幕，大億麗緻酒店近日湧入眾多名貴的藝術作品，相當引人矚目。（〈飯店客房大變身藝術佈展超神奇〉Art Tainan台南藝術博覽會臉書粉絲專頁，2013/3/22） Art Tainan is set to open this weekend (23rd–25th) at the Tayih Landis Hotel, where numerous valuable artworks have recently surged in, drawing significant attention. (“ Stunning Hotel Room Transformation into Extraordinary Art Exhibition Space” – Art Tainan Facebook Fan Page, 2013/03/22).

In this example, “藝術作品artworks”, should not be described with the verb phrase 「湧入」(“surged in”), which typically conveys a wave-like movement more suitable for people or crowds, than for inanimate objects. A more appropriate alternative would be “exhibited or displayed”. In addition, 「眾」 is referred as groups of people, so the phrase「眾多」 is better suited to describing people rather than objects. Therefore, when referring to things like artworks,「許多」 would be a better word choice. Let’s look at another example commonly seen in the media. Which word fits better?

藝人王彩樺跟王中平在民視八點檔《黃金歲月》中飾演脫口秀喜劇二人組「雙星報喜」……，日前兩人與傅子純、蘇晏霈及潘柏希出外景拍攝餐廳表演，一行人紅通通的盛裝打扮，也吸引不少路人的　矚目│側目　。（〈「雙星報喜」重出江湖，一行人紅通通引人側目〉車勢文化網，2021/11/22） Actors Wang Tsai-hua and Wang Zhong-ping play a comedy talk-show duo in the prime-time series ‘Golden Years’ on FTV. Recently, they and several others were filming a restaurant performance on location. Dressed in eye-catching red outfits, the group caught the 矚目│側目　of passersby.

Although the expression 「側目」 (sideways glance) might appear to indicate interest, it typically implies a negative or judgmental gaze, suggesting suspicion or disapproval. Since the context here describes a group of performers in bright red attire receiving public attention, 「矚目」, which emphasizes focused, even admiring attention, is a more appropriate choice.

However, the use of collocation cannot always be interpreted literally; it often requires contexualization and deeper understanding of their origins and intended connotations. Consider another example:

茶水間的零食是組長離職前留給大家的　遺愛│謝禮　，要感謝大家這幾年來對他的協助和照顧。 “The snacks in the pantry were left behind by the team leader before resigning, as a token of    遺愛│謝禮　to show appreication for all the supports and care from colleagues.”

「遺愛」 (Legacy of love) is appropriate only in memorial or eulogistic contexts, such as “his love remains in the world.” Given the context, 「謝禮」 (token of appreciation) better fits the tone and intention of the sentence, conveying gratitude in an everyday context.

As can be seen, it’s clear that the words and expressions we use today have often undergone a long process of refinement. Over time, specific usages have become fixed and conventional. For instance, the word 「嚴重」 (serious/severe) modifies the degree of urgency in a situation and typically carries a negative connotation. Consider the following sentence:

……佩洛西不顧中方嚴重關切和堅決反對執意竄台，嚴重干涉中國內政，嚴重損害中國主權和領土完整，嚴重踐踏一個中國原則，嚴重威脅台海和平穩定。（〈不顧北京反對！中國外交部宣布制裁裴洛西〉Yahoo股市，2022/8/5） “…Pelosi, ignoring China’s serious concerns and firm opposition, insisted on visiting Taiwan, seriously interfering with China’s internal affairs, seriously undermining China’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, seriously violating the One China principle, and seriously threatening peace and stability in the Taiwan Strait.”

Here, the first instance of 「嚴重」(serious) modifies Chinese government’s  concern (嚴重關切) , which is an inappropriate collocation since it wrongly attributes severity to an internal emotion or diplomatic stance in this sentence. The other uses of 「嚴重」(serious), however, refer to the actions attributed to Pelosi and are consistent with the critical tone of the statement, such as “seriously interfered with China’s internal affairs”, “seriously undermined sovereignty”, or “seriously threatened peace”.

Here is another example in the Eranew TV headline:

沈玉琳 40場尾牙 吸金　恐│有望　破千萬（〈沈玉琳 40場尾牙吸金恐破千萬〉年代新聞CH50，2018/9/13） “Shen Yulin hosted 40 year-end banquets and is  恐│有望　(feared/expected) to earn over 10 million.” (2018/09/13)

The word 「恐」(literally “feared”) usually suggests danger or a negative result. But in this case, the outcome, making over 10 million, is clearly positive. The choice of “fear” here, though eye-catching, is a mismatch in tone. Thus, using 「恐」 here is inappropriate and likely intended to attract attention.

Certain idioms may be misused or misunderstood when interpreted too literally or without awareness of their connotations.  For instance, 「步入後塵」literally refers to stepping into someone’s dust and figuratively implies blindly imitating others or repeating their mistakes. It does not carry a positive connotation of honoring or continuing someone’s legacy. Therefore, if a wedding guest says, “The groom is about to follow in his father’s footsteps and become a doctor,” using the expression 「步上父親的後塵」, it could sound awkward or even inappropriate, potentially offending the family. The groom’s family might not take it well. Let’s now examine a few more idioms that may be similarly problematic.

竹北市人口較密集的地區，平日車水馬龍，在下午的全民防空演練期間，由於民眾配合，萬人空巷的街道、車站內外以及市區街道迅速全面淨空。（〈新竹縣107年萬安41號全民防空演習圓滿成功〉新竹縣政府，2018/6/4） In the densely populated areas of Zhubei City, which are normally busy with traffic and people, the afternoon air raid drill saw full cooperation from residents, resulting in 萬人空巷 (literally ‘ten thousand people, empty streets’) across roads, transit stations, and downtown areas.

The phrase 萬人空巷 literally means “ten thousand people emptying the alleys”, describing a situation so exciting that everyone leaves their homes and floods the streets. It is generally used in a positive sense to describe the buzz around a major public event. However, using it to describe a city becoming empty during a drill is incorrect, as the phrase implies public gathering, not evacuation. A more appropriate expression would be one that highlights the city’s orderly emptiness or calmness, rather than bustling participation.

Another example:

陳水扁在2006年就職週年日擔任環保志工，到海灘撿垃圾從事淨灘活動，並讚揚志工人員對台灣的貢獻真的是罄竹難書。（〈念錯字的藝術：鴻鵠、鹿茸、罄竹難書〉NEWS中文，2018/5/8） On the anniversary of his 2006 inauguration, Chen Shui-bian participated in a beach cleanup and praised the volunteers, saying their contributions to Taiwan were truly 罄竹難書. ( “The Art of Misreading: 鴻鵠, 鹿茸, and 罄竹難書,” NEWS Chinese, 2018/05/08)

 While poetic in form, 「罄竹難書」, literally meaning “even if you used up all the bamboo slips, you still wouldn’t be able to finish writing it”, originates from negative contexts, referring to an overwhelming list of crimes or wrongdoings. Despite sounding impressive, using it to praise someone’s efforts or contributions is inappropriate.

In addition to the errors caused by misunderstanding idioms or tones, another common source of confusion is homophones – words that sound alike but have different meanings. In Taiwan, such confusion is often linked to mother tongue influence, making it hard for some speakers to distinguish between nasal finals, such as ㄣ (/n/) and ㄥ (/ŋ/). When two words sound similar and have somewhat related meanings, confusion becomes even more likely.

所以某某，妳從出身到現在都沒吃過肉嗎？ （直男行為研究社臉書粉絲專頁， 2022/8/18） So, from your 出身(background) until now, you’ve never eaten meat? Straight Dude Behavior Watch

            The phrase 出身 refers to one’s family background or personal history, not a specific point in time. Because it sounds similar to 出生 (birth), many people mistakenly treat the two as interchangeable, even though they serve different functions in a sentence.

Another common error involves 截止 and 截至. Consider this sentence:

截止下午5點，入園參觀人數已超過30萬。（〈2010十大語病出爐：央視名嘴口誤入選〉香港文匯報，2010/12/29） As of 5 PM, the number of attendees had exceeded 300,000. (“The 2010 Top 10 Language Errors Revealed: Famous CCTV Host’s Slip of the Tongue”,  Hong Kong Wen Wei Po, 2010/12/29)

 Both 「截」 and 「止」 convey the meaning of stopping or ending something at a certain point in time. Therefore, the object that follows is usually an action, such as in the example: “The deadline for receiving submissions is August 1” (「8月1日截止收件」). However, since the phrase refers to a specific point in time, the correct term should be 「截至」 rather than 「截止」. The character 「至」 literally means “to” or “up to,” (「到」) and the object that follows is usually a specific time, such as in: “The registration period is open until the end of this month” (「報名日期截至本月底止」). The key difference lies in their collocations:

• 截止 + actions or deadlines (e.g., 截止收件 “submission deadline”)
• 截至 + time references (e.g., 截至今日 “as of today”)

Let’s look at another example:

民主選舉的意義就是為了反應民意，不管你支持誰，請珍惜你手中的一票。（謝佳霖(@niko.x3020) ‧Instagram，2018/11/23） The meaning of democratic elections is to 反應 (react) to public opinion.

The term 「反應」 refers a reaction caused by changing conditions or external triggers. In this sense, it makes sense to describe public opinion as the public’s response or reaction to how the governement governs. However, in the given example, the intended meaning is on how democratic elections are meant to reflect or represent public opinion, which makes 「反映」 the correct choice. Although it sounds similar to「反應」 , 「反映」 originally referred to light reflection, but has extended to mean truthfully conveying objective reality or subjective views. These two words are often mixed up because of how similar they sound, even though their actual meanings and tones are quite different.

To sum up, mastering collocations in Chinese involves more than understanding the literal meanings of individual words. Effective usage requires careful attention to grammar, context, and cultural references, and should also align with the communicative purpose of the sentence or paragraph as a whole.

Language evolves over time for various reasons and is often shaped by social norms and conventions. While not strictly governed by formal rules, many word pairings become widely accepted through common usage. Using accurate collocations enables writers to convey their intended messages clearly and naturally. When unsure about proper word combinations, we can strengthen our sense of language through extensive reading, and also consult reliable tools and resources. A selection of useful references and websites is provided below to help you write more clearly and avoid awkward or unnatural writing.

I. Chinese Writing Websites and Reference Books

1. Academia Sinica Chinese Word Sketch Engine
   http://wordsketch.ling.sinica.edu.tw/
   Powered by a large-scale Chinese corpus, this platform offers not just keyword and context searches, but also auto-generated grammatical insights, such as word categories, syntactic patterns, and synonym/near-synonym analysis. With extensive coverage of word usage patterns and collocations, it serves as a valuable resource for researchers, educators, and language learners.

2. Dictionary of Chinese Idioms by Ministry of Education
   https://dict.idioms.moe.edu.tw/
   This online resource is ideal for mastering Chinese idioms. It provides keyword search along with comprehensive entries featuring definitions, historical origins, example sentences, and idioms with similar meanings. A personalized note feature also helps users track learning, making it a valuable tool for both advanced learners and researchers seeking deeper understanding and usage of Chinese idioms.

3. Chinese and English Word-focused Extensive Reading (Academia Sinica)
   https://elearning.ling.sinica.edu.tw/introduction.html
   This platform simplifies the process of learning collocations by focusing on one word at a time. It supports systematic acquisition through contextualized exposure and real-world examples. By encountering collocations in authentic settings, learners can build their understanding of natural collocations more effectively.

4. Word & Character Search System
   http://words.sinica.edu.tw/sou/sou.html
   This lexical platform, developed by the National Science and Technology Council’s Digital Museum Project, allows users to search by word, phrase, or full text. Drawing on multiple dictionaries and lexical databases from different historical periods, it continues to expand and serves as a valuable resource for those looking to enhance their language skills or explore the evolution of Chinese word usage. 

5. Proverbs and Enigmatic Sayings
    https://chiculture.org.hk/tc/china-five-thousand-years/2897
   This insightful article, published by the Academy of Chinese Studies in Hong Kong, explains the differences between proverbs and xiehouyu (enigmatic sayings), while also illustrating their structures and typical word pairings. It is a valuable resource for better understanding the logic behind their collocation patterns and remembering them more effectively.

6. How to Boost Your Academic Vocabulary for Writing
   A practical reference book for anyone seeking to expand their writing vocabulary across a wide range of topics. Each unit features clear definitions and sample sentences for readers to use collocations accurately. The full series includes five volumes spanned diverse themes: nature, people, communication, food, and poetry, catering to varied reader interests and writing contexts.

II. English Writing Websites and Reference Books

1. Corpus of Contemporary American English, COCA
   https://www.english-corpora.org/coca/
   Created by Professor Mark Davies at Brigham Young University, this is the largest English language corpus, featuring over 560 million words from diverse sources such as speech, fiction, news, magazines, and academic journals. It allows users to enhance their writing by exploring vocabulary frequency, usage trends, and stylistic patterns, adapt their writing to reflect current trends and writing purposes.

2. British National Corpus (BNC)
   http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/
   The British National Corpus (BNC) was created by a consortium led by Oxford University Press, Longman, Oxford University Computing Services, and the University Centre for Computer Corpus Research on Language at Lancaster University. It is a comprehensive collection of authentic British English samples—both written and spoken, from a wide range of sources, designed to represent British English as used in the late 20th century.
   It contains 100 million words, mostly from written texts such as news, novels, letters, and academic articles, and about 10% from spoken sources such as meetings or radio shows. Its wide variety of styles makes it a great asset for learning how English is actually used in different situations.

3. Online Oxford Collocation Dictionary of English
   https://www.freecollocation.com/
   An efficient resource for enhancing English writing. Input a word to find commonly used collocations across grammatical categories, supported by authentic example sentences.

4. OZDIC English Collocation Dictionary
   http://www.ozdic.com/
   由牛津字典架設的線上英語搭配辭典，因其簡單的搜尋介面而深受歡迎。使用者只要輸入單字就可以看到該單字適合使用的各式搭配詞，如名詞、動詞、形容詞等的習慣搭配關係。每種用法都有清楚的解釋與例句，讓我們在寫作時，不但有多樣的選擇，還能找出適合又正確的表達方法。
   OZDIC, the online collocation dictionary from Oxford English Dictionary, is known for its clean interface and ease of use. It’s a handy tool for finding a variety of collocations such as verbs, nouns, adjectives with clear definitions and examples to support fluent and accurate writing.

5. Just The Word
   http://www.just-the-word.com/
   A powerful platform featuring a rich database of English collocations, it analyzes and ranks word pairings based on frequency, offering curated lists to enhance vocabulary precision and usage.

6. Linggle.com
   Developed by Professor Chunsheng Chang’s team at National Tsing Hua University in Taiwan, Linggle is a data-driven search engine that helps users find accurate English collocations. A key feature is its ability to filter by part of speech, allowing learners to explore how specific actions or descriptions are commonly expressed. This tool supports richer, more precise writing by preventing overuse of generic phrases.

7. Lugwig.guru
   Ludwig offers advanced search capabilities by analyzing authentic English sources. It provides synonyms, definitions, and context-rich sentences from top-tier publications, helping writers verify word usage and discover natural collocations quickly.

8. Academic Phrasebank
   https://www.phrasebank.manchester.ac.uk/

   This academic writing resource, developed by the University of Manchester, provides a comprehensive collection of academic phrases and sentence structures organized by sections of a research paper such as Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. Ideal for students writing theses or dissertations, the site supports stronger organization and expression in scholarly work.

9. English CLUB

• Vocabulary: Collocations
  https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/collocations.htm

  This free website, developed by a team of experienced English educators, offers a wide range of vocabulary lists and interactive exercises. It helps learners understand how verbs, nouns, and adjectives naturally pair together, with clear examples and visuals to support both speaking and writing practice.

10. AWEC, NTU

• E-Newsletter No. 016
• Exploring Academic Vocabulary: How Thesaurus and Collocation Dictionaries Improve Your Writing
  https://epaper.ntu.edu.tw/view.php?listid=245&id=24223

  This newsletter from AWEC offers practical tips on choosing the right academic vocabulary. Drawing on years of English teaching experience, the author explains distinctions between words like consequence and outcome, and demonstrates how tools such as thesaurus and collocation dictionaries can help you expand your vocabulary and sharpen your sensitivity to natural word choices in academic writing.

11. Oxford Collocation Dictionary for Students of English. (2009). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
    Based on extensive corpus data, this dictionary presents frequent collocations in both American and British English. It is designed to help learners express their ideas more naturally and organize more persuasive and coherent arguments, particularly in academic writing contexts.

12. BBI Combinatory Dictionary of English (Third Ed).
    From a clear introduction to collocations to extensive hands-on practice, this book equips learners with the skills to explore collocations in both spoken and written English. Ideal for building confidence and fluency in vocabulary use.

13. English Collocations in Use Advanced (2nd edition). (2017). Cambridge:
    Cambridge University Press.
    This book provides a detailed explanation of English collocations across various academic disciplines. It also includes practical tips and exercises designed for advanced learners, ideal for self-study and IELTS preparation.

14. Collocations for the Writing of English Research Papers (2008)
    Written by Prof. Liao Bo-Sen, NTNU, this book gives a comprehensive collocation guide for academic papers, including usage examples and exercises for thesis writing.

15. The Winning Edge in English Collocations: Speak Clearly, Write Elegantly, Read with Ease (2012)
    This comprehensive reference book, authored by Professor Liao Po-Sen, presents thematically organized collocations by part of speech, accompanied by related expressions, extended reading passages, self-assessment quizzes, a practical mini-dictionary of collocations, and useful links to online corpora.