Unit 4: Word Choice

Understanding the audience and the purpose of communication – whether spoken or written – is crucial for choosing appropriate words and phrasing to achieve the intended goal while avoiding misunderstandings. In other words, proper wording must align with the context: the emotional charged wording in social media marketing may be effective in engaging consumers but the same approach could incite public emotional reaction toward specific issues if applied to news reporting; politicians’ so-called “humor” might reinforce public’s stereotypes about minority groups. Likewise, in academic writing, formal language is used to maintain the objectivity and credibility of their research findings, rather than simply compiling experimental notes. The following sections will explore some key principles for making appropriate word choices in different settings.

1.受眾與寫作目的 Audience and Writing Purpose

When we text friends through messaging apps or post on social media, we naturally “write as we speak,” avoiding formal language or complex vocabulary. However, in more formal settings, such as news reports, academic research, and official documents, our words must be chosen with care to ensure professionalism, foster respectful communication and prevent unnecessary disputes. Below are two examples of overly informal language used in formal contexts:

1.    鍾明軒罵爆《鬼滅》代理商！陳沂 PO 文怒嗆：看不起風向仔（〈鍾明軒罵爆《鬼滅》代理商！陳沂 PO 文怒嗆：看不起風向仔〉Yahoo 新聞，2020/11/6） [English Translation:] Zhong Mingxuan slams the distributor of Demon Slayer! Chen Yi fires back in a post: ‘I despise those trend chasers!’ (Yahoo News, 2020/11/6)

This example illustrates how certain colloquial expressions used in Taiwanese social media and news headlines impact media narratives and shape public opinion. The term “PO” is casual abbreviation of the English word “post,” and “PO 文” is a widely used to describe the act of posting content on social media platforms. The suffix “仔” in Taiwanese Hokkien generally indicates a diminutive form, but often carries a derogatory undertone. In this context, “風向仔” is a mocking term to describe individuals who manipulate or follow public opinion opportunistically. Another term “罵爆” is an exaggerated expression of criticism while “嗆”, derived from the local Taiwanese language “唱聲 (tshiàng-siann),” conveys a confrontational or provocative warning. Both “罵爆” and “怒嗆,” are emotionally charged expressions used by reporters to stir public reaction, sustain interest and drive media engagement, ultimately aiming to increase viewership and advertising revenue. However, while the use of such emotionally loaded and familiar language may boost headline appeal, it often comes at the expense of the journalistic objectivity and propriety in formal writing.

2. 評語的標準是，上課學習和報告功課，要寫好的，不能寫壞的，有壞的不能寫，因為這是，要升碩士的備審，要寫好的話，就算真的有壞的和不好的話，也不可以寫上去，要留和要寫好的話，好嗎老師？因為這是要升碩士的備審！（臉書，2022/1/22）

This example was excerpted from an email written by an undergraduate student applying for graduate school, requesting a professor’s recommendation. Putting aside the grammatical issues, the email is problematic in that the student assumed he could dictate the content of the recommendation letter. The use of ‘要’ (yào) and ‘可以’ (kěyǐ) conveys a commanding or directive tone, which is inappropriate in this context. Using such a demanding tone may risk the student’s chances of receiving a strong recommendation and ultimately, admission into graduate school.

2.忌用偏見或歧視用語 Avoiding Biased or Discriminatory Language

Marginalized groups in society often face multiple forms of harms, which in turn perpetuate systemic discrimination and further reinforce pubic stereotypes and biases. This creates a vicious cycle that is often reflected in the language used by the public. Many of these labels carry painful histories and trauma and should be avoided in all contexts. Even if someone uses such terms out of ignorance, the appropriate response is to acknowledge the mistake and offer a sincere apology. Here’s an example of a commonly used but offensive phrase in Taiwan:

奇怪不是很多外籍新娘嗎？已經進口三十萬了。（〈「外籍新娘進口論」 是逆流，還是回流？〉獨立評論，2015/3/11） Aren’t there a lot of foreign brides? We’ve already imported 300,000. (From “Is the Idea of ‘Importing Foreign Brides’ a Regressive Concept or a Natural Trend?”—The News Lens, March 11, 2015)

Over the past few decades, Taiwanese women have experienced greater social and economic mobility than men. However, traditional patriarchal norms persist, leading many working-class men to feel reluctant to marry women perceived as more successful. Since the 1970s, many Southeast Asian women have migrated to Taiwan through matchmaking agencies to marry local men, with the number peaking in 2003. As a result, the term “外籍新娘” (foreign bride) became commonly used to describe these foreign Southeast Asian spouses, reflecting a sense of otherness, and has developed negative connotations over time due to persistent social prejudice toward these women. In response, the more neutral term “new resident” (新住民) has beem adopted in public discourse. In this example, the headline uses the word “import” (進口), which typically describes bringing foreign goods into a country, to objectify these women and reinforce the discriminatory view of them as commodities rather than human beings.

3.過新或過時的用詞Avoiding Outdated or Overly New Terms

Language is constantly evolving. Some vocabulary falls out of use, shifts in meaning, or being newly created. Accordingly, words that were once considered acceptable may, over time, acquire negative or problematic connotations and should therefore be avoided. On the other hand, when using newer or less familiar terms, it is advisable to provide a clear explanation. Here are a few exampels that should be used with caution:

1. 外勞來台檢疫 7 天集體消失 雇主憂遭開罰。（〈外勞來台檢疫 7 天集體消失 雇主憂遭開罰〉聯合新聞網，2022/8/21） “Foreign laborers disappeared after 7-day quarantine in Taiwan; employers fear penalties.” (United Daily News, 2022/8/21)

Seemingly neutral terminology can become offensive when used in a dismissive or derogatory tone. In this example, the term “外勞” (Wai-Lao), originally a shortened form for foreign laborers, has come to refer specifically to blue-collar migrant workers. Similar to the previously mentioned female “new residents,” the term “Wai-Lao” has gradually gained unfavorable associations, reflecting societal stereotypes and discrimination related to nationality and social status. As a result, the more neutral term “移工” (migrant worker) is now preferred, as it emphasizes their movement for work without reinforcing social stigma.

2. 當上空姐不代表拿到永久飯票！前資深組員揭年度血汗訓練過程，才沒有送餐、賣免稅品那麼輕鬆。（〈當上空姐不代表拿到永久飯票！前資深組員揭年度血汗訓練過程，才沒有送餐、賣免稅品那麼輕鬆〉風傳媒，2021/12/12） Being a Flight Attendant Isn’t a Golden Ticket for Lifetime! Former Senior Crew Member Uncovers the Grueling Blood-Sweat Training Behind the Glamorous Job. (The Storm Media, 2021/12/12)

In the past, the term “空姐” was used to refer to female flight attendants, while their male counterparts were known as “空少”. Due to the relatively low number of men in the profession, “空姐” became the default term for all cabin crew. Although the term may not have been originally derogatory, the generalized use of a gender-specific label reinforces gender stereotypes within the profession.

4.     「內卷」與「躺平」之間掙扎的中國年輕人。（〈「內卷」與「躺平」 之間掙扎的中國年輕人〉BBC NEWS 中文，2021/6/2） Chinese Youth Struggle Between “Involution” and “Lying Flat.” (BBC Chinese, 2021/6/2)

The term “內卷” (involution) originally described a phenomenon in traditional agricultural societies where increased labor failed to improve productivity. In recent years, this term has been adapted in China to refer to excessive, often unproductive competition, especially among young people. In contrast, “躺平” (lying flat) reflects a rejection of this pressure, symbolizing a passive resistance to societal expectations. Both expressions are relatively new, reflecting a growing sense of frustration with the global economy among younger generations. Given their relatively recent emergence and cultural specificity, it is advisable to define these terms when introducing them to avoid confusion

Now that we’ve discussed common word choice principles in Chinese writing, let’s move on to key strategies and examples in English writing. In English writing, appropriate and precise word choice allows readers better understand the writer’s intent and avoid confusion or misinterpretation. The following section will begin with general strategies for selecting words, followed by guidance on adapting language based on the reader’s background and writing genres.

I. Word Choice Principles

1. Use Precise Language: In academic writing, using specific and concrete words is far more effective to create vivid imagery and conveys meaning more clearly than using abstract or vague ones. As illustrated in The Elements of Style:
   

   Abstract Example: “A period of unfavorable weather set in.”

    

   Concrete Example: “It rained every day for a week.”

   The first sentence uses abstract words such as unfavorable weather and period that offer limited information and lacks specific detail. Readers are still left wondering why or whether the bad weather was due to non-stop raining or drought, or how long it lasted. The second sentence gives us a clear image of the weather and time period: rained and every day, for a week. This example demonstrates how specific word choices enhance both clarity and reader understanding.

2. Avoid Misused Words: Word selection must reflect accurate meanings to prevent confusion. Consider the following example:
   

   Incorrect Usage: “The indigenous peoples in this area had monotonous painting culture.”

    

   Improved Usage: “The indigenous peoples in this area had homogenous painting culture.”

   The difference between these examples lies in the choice of adjectives. Monotonous conveys a sense of dullness with a negative connotation, while homogenous offers a neutral description of similarity without judgment. In academic writing, subtle differences in word choice can greatly affect tone and interpretation. Thus, choosing words carefully is crucial to prevent miscommunication or unintended bias.

3. Make Pronouns Clear: Improper use of pronouns in a sentence can confuse readers about who or what is being referred to.
   

   Incorrect Usage: “My brother Alex shook hands with my classmate Max, even though he didn’t like him very much.”

    

   Revision 1: “My brother Alex shook hands with my classmate Max, even though he didn’t like Max.”

    

   Revision 2: “My brother Alex shook hands with my classmate Max, even though Alex didn’t like him.”

    

   Revision 3: “My brother Alex shook hands with my classmate Max, even though Alex didn’t like Max very much.”

   In the incorrect usage example, the pronouns he and him create ambiguity, making it unclear whether Alex dislikes Max or vice versa. The three revised versions resolve this confusion by explicitly identifying Alex as the person who doesn’t like Max.

4. Be Cautious with Jargon: Jargon refers to technical or specialized terms used within specific fields. When writing, you should consider whether your audience is familiar with the subject matter before using jargon. Using too many technical terms can make your message difficult to understand. Consider the following example:
   

   Jargon Example: 行話例： “The algorithm was used to evaluate the learning efficacy.”

    

   Revised version: “The model was used to evaluate the learning performance.”

   In the jargon example, algorithm and efficacy are technical terms commonly used in areas such as computer science or biomedical fields. Non-expert readers might not immediately understand them. The revised version replaced these terms with simpler, more accessible alternatives, model and performance, making the sentence easier to understand without changing its intended meaning.

II. Adapting Word Choice Based on Audience and Genre

As university students, you’ll be expected to complete a variety of writing tasks, whether they are class presentations or academic papers. Building on the previous section, principle 4: “Be Cautious with Jargon”, this section illustrates how your word choices should adapt to your audience through the examples from news reports, popular science articles and academic journals. The following three passages all explain why the Omicron variant of COVID-19 may escape immune detection, but each targets a different readership.

Passage 1 – CNN Online News “During a news briefing, genomic scientists said the variant has an unusually high number of mutations, with more than 30 in the key spike protein – the structure the virus uses to get into the cells they attack. ⋯ Officials also expressed concern that the mutation could result in immune evasion and enhanced transmissibility of the virus⋯”1

 

Passage 2 –  Scientific American《科學美國人》雜誌： “During infection, fist-shaped clumps of amino acids atop the coronavirus spike called receptor-binding domains (RBDs) grab onto a protein on the outside of some human cells: the ACE2 receptor. To prevent that ill-fated attachment, the immune system creates antibodies—Y-shaped proteins induced by prior infection or vaccination—that recognize an RBD and stick to it like Velcro, getting in the way so the virus cannot link up with ACE2. In previous variants, one, two or maybe three amino acids on RBDs were mutated, altering each RBD just enough to prevent some but not all antibodies from recognizing it. But Omicron harbored 15 RBD mutations, many on prime antibody-binding sites, forming an elaborate disguise to avoid many more antibodies. It was as if the virus donned a full- blown Mission: Impossible–style latex mask to change its face. “There are just so many mutations and so many new ones,” says Matthew McCallum, a biochemist at the University of Washington.” 2

 

Passage 3 – Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy “The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, as the major structural protein, is embedded in the SARS-CoV-2 viral membrane in homo-trimeric form and recognizes human ACE2 as a receptor for viral entry. It consists of two subunits, S1 and S2, cleaved by host furin. The distal S1 subunit contains two important regions, RBD (receptor binding domain) and NTD (N-terminal domain), and the RBD acts as the binding region for ACE2, making it the most critical target affecting virus-host interaction and vulnerable site to antibody neutralization (Fig. 2a). Currently, most neutralizing antibodies or vaccines are developed to target the RBD to block or inhibit viral infection. Furthermore, the binding with ACE2 of RBD requires conformational adaptation, and an easier transition from “closed” to “open” conformation of spike protein benefits the viral infection. Therefore, mutations in the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 variants could significantly influence the structure of the spike protein conformation and further the interaction with ACE2 or neutralizing antibodies (Figs. 2b and 3).”3

Passage 1 (CNN News) briefly explains viral infection process and suggests that spike protein mutations may lead to immune evasion. This passage uses plain language with minimal jargon. Spike protein is the only technical term, and it’s immediately clarified with simpler explanation.

Passage 2 (Scientific American) discusses viral infection and the immune response in greater detail. This passage uses more jargon than CNN News, such as receptor-binding domains (RBDs) and ACE2 receptor, but clarifies them using analogies by comparing them to Velcro or a Mission: Impossible–style mask, making complex concepts more accessible to general readers.

Passage 3 (Academic Journal – Signal Transduction and Targeted Therapy) gives a detailed account of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein’s structure and its subunits, explaining how changes in these structures could make current vaccines or antibodies less effective. This passage contains more jargon than Scientific American article, including complex terms like S1, S2, NTD (N-terminal domain), in addition to RBDs and ACE2 receptor. Unlike Scientific American, this journal assumes the reader has expert knowledge, using jargon to convey detailed findings without clarifying technical terms.

As we can see from the comparison, texts with a strong academic focus tend to use more formal language and a higher frequency of jargon, since their intended readers usually have relevant subject knowledge. On the other hand, news articles for the general public tend to use everyday language, avoid jargon, or provide additional explanations when technical terms are used. When writing reports or theses, always consider who your readers are. If jargon is necessary, its frequency should be controlled and accompanied by sufficient explanation to ensure clarity.

To sum up, whether writing in Chinese or English, reader awareness, context, and purpose are key to choosing the right words. If you’re unsure about word choice, make good use of online tools and reference books to help you write with clarity and accuracy.

To help you write more clearly and effectively, the following websites and resources from both Chinese and English materials offer valuable guidance on word choice and overall writing clarity.

I. Chinese Writing Websites and Reference Books

1. 教育部全球資訊網 – 電子辭典 https://www.edu.tw/Content_List.aspx?n=83D8D70FE4468412This website is one of several online dictionaries developed by the Ministry of Education. With functions like basic and advanced searches and radical index, it’s a useful resource for improving your word choice in writing.

2. 國家教育研究院雙語詞彙、學術名詞暨辭書資訊網 https://terms.naer.edu.tw/This website, established by the National Academy for Educational Research, offers a database of academic terms and Chinese-English bilingual vocabulary. It serves as a valuable reference for writing and translating academic papers and professional texts.

3. 搜詞尋字 http://words.sinica.edu.tw/sou/sou.htmlThis online dictionary was created as part of the National Science Council’s Digital Museum pilot project. It offers search functions based on characters, word formation, and sentence structure, and can be used to explore related words, phrases, sources, and linguistic knowledge.

4. “From Words to Structure: A Structural Guide to Academic Writing”

• Chapter 5: Words, Sentences, Paragraphs and Essays
  This Chinese-language academic writing reference book, published by NTU Press and authored by Professor Tsai Po-Ying in coordination with the AWEC of NTU, offers practical guidance on planning and organizing academic writing. Using authentic examples and addressing common writing issues, the book provides step-by-step instruction across three main parts: “Planning and Preparing Writing,” “Structure of Academic Writing,” and “Grammar in Writing,” spanning six chapters. Section 5.1, “Word Choice,” presents essential principles for word choice in academic writing, supported by common errors and effective revision examples.

II. English Writing Websites and Reference Books

1. Merriam-Webster Dictionary https://www.merriam-webster.com/
   Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers detailed explanations of word meanings and provides related information such as synonyms, antonyms, and illustrative examples.

2. Visual Dictionary Online http://www.visualdictionaryonline.com/
   Visual Dictionary Online combines illustrations with textual explanations to help define words that are difficult to convey through text alone, enabling users to quickly understand both common and technical vocabulary.

3. Cambridge Dictionary https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/
   Cambridge Dictionary encompasses a variety of database resources categorized by content type, including English dictionaries, English grammar, English thesaurus, and multilingual translation dictionaries, allowing users to select relevant database based on their specific needs.

4. com-the English Collocations Dictionary online http://www.ozdic.com/OZDIC 
   English Collocation Dictionary is designed to help users find appropriate English collocations. Search results display common collocations based on the part of speech of the target word, accompanied by definitions and usage examples to make your writing more natural.

5. The Writing Center at University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

• Word Choice: https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/word-choice/
  This online writing resource, provided by the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Writing Center, features a “Word Choice” section as supplementary learning material. It offers students examples of common word choice issues and guides them in learning how to revise these effectively.

6. Saylor Academy

• Handbook for Writers Chapter 17 Word Choice
  https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_handbook-for-writers/s21- word-choice.html
  Saylor Academy is a nonprofit initiative that offers free and open online courses. This resource recommends Chapter 17, “Word Choice,” from the academy’s writing handbook. The unit includes four parts, covering common word usage issues, practice exercises, and tips on how to use dictionaries and thesauruses to help students choose words more accurately in their writing.

7. The Writing Center at George Mason University

• Online Resources for Improving Grammar and Word Choice in Writing
  https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/guides/online-resources-for-improving-grammar-and-word-choice-in-writing
  Developed by the George Mason University Writing Center, this site offers a collection of  word and phrase reference database and useful writing tools that support various aspects of writing.

8. The Elements of Style

• Elementary Principles of Composition
  This classic guide, authored by William Strunk Jr. and E. B. White, offers practical advice on English grammar and usage rules and essential principles of style. For tips on using words precision, readers may refer to the section “Use definite, specific, concrete language,” which outlines the principle of precise word choice along with helpful examples. The example used in “Use Precise Language” is taken from that part of the book.

References

1. Balkiz, D. M., Ghazi. A new Covid-19 variant could show immune evasion and enhanced transmissibility, South African scientists warn. CNN https://www.cnn. com/2021/11/25/world/covid-variant-south-africa-immune-evasion-transmissibility/ index.html (2021).
2. Scudellari, M. Evasive Anatomy – The Omicron coronavirus variant had specific mutations that hid it from the immune system. That helped make it wildly contagious. Am. 4 (2022).
3. Sun, C., Xie, C., Bu, G.-L., Zhong, L.-Y. & Zeng, M.-S. Molecular characteristics, immune evasion, and impact of SARS-CoV-2 variants. Signal Transduct. Target. Ther. 7, (2022).